Economic sanctions

Economic sanctions are deliberate restrictions—or threats to restrict—ordinary commercial and financial relations, imposed to pursue foreign-policy or security aims. They may be introduced by a single government, a group of states or an international organization. Measures can apply to an entire country or be limited to particular sectors, companies, organizations or people.

Common instruments include trade embargoes, import and export controls, restrictions on investment or assistance, prohibitions on transactions, and the freezing of assets. Sanctions regimes may also include arms embargoes and travel bans. Some regimes are broad, while others are selective and focus on specified goods, activities or listed targets. A secondary sanction seeks to discourage third parties from dealing with a primary target, adding pressure beyond the direct restrictions.

Sanctions do not come from one universal authority. Governments and regional organizations adopt measures under their own legal frameworks; international bodies may also authorize them. Under Chapter VII of the United Nations Charter, the Security Council may decide on measures that do not involve armed force. Article 41 specifically includes the complete or partial interruption of economic relations among the possible measures. This is the legal basis for UN Security Council sanctions, not a description of every national or regional sanctions program.

Governments and international organizations use sanctions to try to influence policies, constrain access to resources or technology, raise the cost of particular conduct, signal disapproval, or support broader diplomatic efforts. UN Security Council regimes have pursued goals including counter-terrorism, non-proliferation, protection of human rights and support for peaceful political transitions. Measures are often presented as an alternative or complement to other diplomatic tools; their stated objective and actual effect are not necessarily the same.

Sanctions can restrict a target’s access to markets, finance, investment, goods or services. The resulting pressure may encourage a policy change, but targets can adapt, find alternative trading partners or shift costs to other parts of the economy. An assessment therefore depends on the specific objective and time period, the target’s dependence on the sanctioning parties, enforcement and domestic compliance, participation by other countries, and the target’s ability to evade or adjust to the measures. Sanctions can also impose costs on the states applying them and on third parties. There is no single outcome measure that captures all of these effects, and the effectiveness of sanctions remains contested.

Restrictions can have indirect consequences for civilians, especially when they disrupt commercial, financial or supply channels on which households and public services depend. Targeted measures are intended to concentrate pressure on specified people or entities, while broad restrictions can affect a wider economy; the practical effects depend on how measures are designed, implemented and enforced. Governments and organizations may seek to limit unintended effects, but stated intent alone does not establish what happens in practice.

A WHO-sponsored systematic review published in 2023 examined evidence on health and health systems in low- and middle-income countries. Among 27 studies with impact estimates retained after excluding studies with data-integrity issues, 21 reported consistently adverse health effects; the authors also noted that most studies had multiple risk-of-bias concerns and that causal assessment was difficult. The finding is specific to the reviewed evidence, not a universal estimate for every sanctions regime. The authors called for prospective risk assessment and monitoring, underscoring the need to evaluate humanitarian effects alongside political and economic goals.