Mohenjo-daro

Mohenjo-daro—also rendered as Moenjodaro or Mohenjodaro—is a large archaeological mound complex near the Indus River in present-day Sindh, Pakistan. It was one of the main cities of the Indus civilization, also called the Harappan civilization after another major centre, Harappa. The civilization's best-known urban phase is generally dated to about 2600–1900 BCE; Mohenjo-daro's remains belong to the third millennium BCE.

The site's archaeological importance was recognized in 1922, when excavations brought a previously little-known urban culture into view. Excavated buildings, streets, objects and inscriptions provide evidence about civic life and craft production, but they do not yield a complete account of the city's rulers, institutions or inhabitants' beliefs.

The surviving city is commonly described in two broad zones: a raised western citadel area and a lower town to the east. Streets in the lower city intersected in an orderly pattern, and excavations have revealed wells, drains and facilities for managing wastewater. These features show sustained planning and civic infrastructure, although the precise organization of government behind them remains uncertain.

Among the best-known structures is the Great Bath, a large, carefully built bathing tank. The ruins also include substantial public buildings and houses arranged around courtyards. Seals, weights, pottery and crafted objects found at Indus sites—including Mohenjo-daro—help archaeologists study exchange, production and shared material practices across the civilization. The script appearing on some seals remains undeciphered, limiting what can be said about the language and written records of the people who made them.

Mohenjo-daro is important not only for its scale but also for what its material evidence can—and cannot—show. Its street plan, drainage works and public architecture can be compared with other Indus settlements, while artifacts help reconstruct trade and everyday crafts. Archaeologists have not established a definitive model of the city's political system, and the undeciphered script prevents direct reading of its records. Interpretations of individual buildings and the reasons for later changes in settlement therefore remain open to revision as evidence and methods develop.

The site's international significance was recognized when the Archaeological Ruins at Moenjodaro were inscribed on UNESCO's World Heritage List in 1980. Conservation is challenging: UNESCO identifies salt-related deterioration and water-related hazards as concerns. Following damaging rainfall in August 2022, UNESCO and the International Council on Monuments and Sites (ICOMOS) visited in 2024 to review restoration work and discuss further safeguarding measures.